Production of pharmaceutically active peptides and proteins in large quantities has become feasible (Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:1917-1925). The oral route is considered the most convenient way of drug administrations for patients. Nevertheless, the intestinal epithelium is a major barrier to the absorption of hydrophilic drugs such as peptides and proteins (J. Control. Release 1996; 39:131-138). This is because hydrophilic drugs cannot easily diffuse across the cells through the lipid-bilayer cell membranes. Furthermore, following the oral drug delivery route, protein drugs are readily degraded by the low pH of gastric medium in the stomach.
Polymeric nanoparticles have been widely investigated as carriers for drug delivery (Biomaterials 2002; 23:3193-3201). Much attention has been given to the nanoparticles made of synthetic biodegradable polymers such as poly-ε-caprolactone and polylactide due to their good biocompatibility (J. Drug Delivery 2000; 7:215-232; Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 1995; 41:19-25). However, these nanoparticles are not ideal carriers for hydrophilic drugs because of their hydrophobic property. Some aspects of the invention relate to a novel nanoparticle system, composed of hydrophilic chitosan and poly(glutamic acid) hydrogels that is prepared by a simple ionic-gelation method. This technique is promising as the nanoparticles are prepared under mild conditions without using harmful solvents or elevated temperatures. It is known that organic solvents may cause degradation of peptide or protein drugs that are unstable and sensitive to their environments (J. Control. Release 2001; 73:279-291).
Chitosan (CS), a cationic polysaccharide, is generally derived from chitin by alkaline deacetylation (J. Control. Release 2004; 96:285-300). It was reported from literature that CS is non-toxic and soft-tissue compatible (Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:1917-1925; Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:828-833). Most commercially available CSs have quite large molecular weight (MW) and need to be dissolved in an acetic acid solution at a pH value of approximately 4.0 or lower that is sometimes impractical. However, there are potential applications of CS in which a low MW would be essential. Given a low MW, the polycationic characteristic of CS can be used together with a good solubility at a pH value close to physiological ranges (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2004; 57:101-105). Loading of peptide or protein drugs at physiological pH ranges would preserve their bioactivity. On this basis, a low-MW CS, obtained by depolymerizing a commercially available CS using cellulase, is disclosed herein in preparing nanoparticles of the present invention.
The γ-PGA, an anionic peptide, is a natural compound produced as capsular substance or as slime by members of the genus Bacillus (Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2001; 21:219-232). γ-PGA is unique in that it is composed of naturally occurring L-glutamic acid linked together through amide bonds. It was reported from literature that this naturally occurring γ-PGA is a water-soluble, biodegradable, and non-toxic polymer. A related, but structurally different polymer, [poly(α-glutamic acid), α-PGA] has been used for drug delivery (Adv. Drug Deliver. Rev. 2002; 54:695-713; Cancer Res. 1998; 58:2404-2409). α-PGA is usually synthesized from poly(γ-benzyl-L-glutamate) by removing the benzyl protecting group with the use of hydrogen bromide. Hashida et al. used α-PGA as a polymeric backbone and galactose moiety as a ligand to target hepatocytes (J. Control. Release 1999; 62:253-262). Their in vivo results indicated that the galactosylated α-PGA had a remarkable targeting ability to hepatocytes and degradation of α-PGA was observed in the liver.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,194,389 issued on Feb. 27, 2001, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method of administering a protein or peptide in a vertebrate subject by in situ microprojectile bombardment, comprising the steps of providing microprojectiles, the microprojectiles carrying polynucleic acid sequences; and accelerating the microprojectiles at the cells, with the microprojectiles contacting the cells at a speed sufficient to penetrate the cells and deposit the polynucleic acid sequences therein.
Skin is an attractive target for delivery of genetic therapies and vaccines. Gene guns have been reportedly used for delivery of DNA-coated gold particles through the stratum corneum to the epidermis by pressurized helium. The coated DNA can be bombarded directly into the cytoplasm and nuclei of cells facilitating expression of the encoded protein. However, the DNA coated on the exterior surfaces of gold particles is liable to be digested by DNase and lacks the ability of controlled release. Further disadvantage of conventional gene-gun bombardments is that the non-biodegradable gold particles may cause adverse side effects when over-accumulated. In view of the foregoing, an object of this invention is to provide new uses of nanoparticles encapsulated with nucleic acid (for example, plasmid DNA (pDNA), RNA or siRNA) or loaded with detection-enhancing substance as a potential drug delivery vehicle.